A Garden for Animals: Varro's Aviary

While we don't generally consider zoos to be a garden, they were originally known as 'zoological gardens', and their form has evolved greatly in the last two hundred years. Animals in enclosures were long a part of Roman society, specifically as pens for the storage of beasts used in fights, later in the Colosseum but earlier in common amphitheatres and public shows. In the early first century BCE, collections of birds for pleasure and amusement are documented, starting with Laenius Strabo, a wealthy member of the military and resident of the provinces, who had a small aviary. Varro writes of Strabo's collection, and he himself had a aviary at his Casinum villa.

Fantastical and conceptual drawing of Varro's aviary.

Netted coverings are shown in the enclosures. 

Varro built an enclosure with high walls and a netted roof made of rope, as well as nets over the doors. It held a variety of songbirds, his favourite being the blackbird. What makes this especially identifiable as a garden was the presence of trees and shrubs, native to the original homes of the imported birds, planted in formations around a number of water features. Besides the usual fish ponds and fountains, Varro also included a duck pond, which was adjacent to a small covered rotunda where he often hosted guests and used as a place to dine.

The food served in the aviary was specifically related to the setting; Varro would serve fish from the pond and fowl from the enclosure so that guests could dine on what they were watching. He did not keep this practice up for long, as his guests found it difficult to consume food while surrounded with the smell of birds. Apparently the general smell of the animals caused the food to be unpalatable. Nonetheless, he continued to use it as a pleasure garden and to entertain guests. It serves as another example of a different form of garden.

Works Cited:
Hooper, William Davis, Harrison Boyd Ash, Georg Goetz, Marcus Porcius Cato, and Marcus Terentius. Varro. On Agriculture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1934, III, 5.

Jennison, George. Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome. Manchester, UK: University of Manchester Press, 1937.

Image Source:
Jennison, George. Animals for Show and Pleasure in Ancient Rome. Manchester, UK: University of Manchester Press, 1937, page 125.

Roman Gardens Abroad: Tunisia

Across the Mediterranean Sea from Rome and its surrounding areas is the coast of Africa, which in ancient times was a part of the Roman Empire. Thuborbo, a district of Tunisia, was under imperial control by Hadrian, and under Commodus became a colony. The Tunisian area holds more excavated Roman era homes than any part of the Empire outside modern Italy, and is a treasure trove of Roman life outside Rome. Carthage was a major part of the empire and is within the Tunisian area.

(1) Roman Empire at its height, 117 AD.

Due to heavy Roman influence, homes in the colonies and provinces took on aspects of Roman architecture and style very quickly, and that includes the inclusion of gardens within the home. The classic Roman garden, the peristyle, can be seen in a number of homes in Carthage. 

(2) A restoration of a peristyle garden in Carthage,

with a unique octagonal feature that has been replanted.

In Thuborbo, one major contrast with the gardens of Rome was found. Most houses in the town did not have a kitchen, but instead a cooking pit contained within the garden, with evidence of benches surrounding it. Tricliniums were found in most houses, so perhaps only some eating was done in the household garden, but it would appear most cooking was done in this space. Evidence from castings of roots as well as from pits of fruits shows the gardens contained a multitude of edibles, both tree and bush, as well as other plants that were likely ornamental. 

(3) Plan of the House of Bacchus and Ariadne, courtyard garden, Tunisia.

Each marking is a root cluster or plant cast identified within the garden.

The Tunisian houses also did not have the traditional atriums that the Roman houses featured. This abnormality means the peristyle or courtyard garden was the main feature of greenery and natural beauty within the house. It suggests that while Roman influence is present, it was not complete, as some aspects did not translate into existing architecture and cultures. Regardless, the appearance of the peristyle garden after Roman control shows the incredible importance of gardens to Roman culture and experience. 

Works Cited:

Bowe, Patrick. Gardens of the Roman World. Illustrated ed. Getty Publications, 2004. Accessed June 19, 2016. https://books.google.ca/books?id=k_1GAgAAQBAJ&dq=roman gardens carthage&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s.

Jashemski, Wilhelmina F., J. E. Foss, R. J. Lewis, M. E. Timpson, and S. Y. Lee. "Roman Gardens in Tunisia: Preliminary Excavations in the House of Bacchus and Ariadne and in the East Temple at Thuburbo Maius." American Journal of Archaeology 99, no. 4 (1995): 559-76. Accessed June 19, 2016. doi:10.2307/506183.

Semple, Ellen Churchill. "Ancient Mediterranean Pleasure Gardens." Geographical Review 19, no. 3 (1929): 420-43. Accessed June 19, 2016. doi:10.2307/209149.

Image Sources:

Bowe, Patrick. Gardens of the Roman World. Illustrated ed. Getty Publications, 2004. Accessed June 19, 2016. https://books.google.ca/books?id=k_1GAgAAQBAJ&dq=roman gardens carthage&lr=&source=gbs_navlinks_s, page 112. (Image 2).

Jashemski, Wilhelmina F., J. E. Foss, R. J. Lewis, M. E. Timpson, and S. Y. Lee. "Roman Gardens in Tunisia: Preliminary Excavations in the House of Bacchus and Ariadne and in the East Temple at Thuburbo Maius." American Journal of Archaeology 99, no. 4 (1995): 559-76. Accessed June 19, 2016. doi:10.2307/506183, page 566. (Image 3).

Ancient History Encyclopedia, http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Empire/ (Image 1).

Rome Repurposed: The Soderini Garden

In the modern area of what was once the Campus Martius, in the busy urban area of Rome, there is a large and quiet property overgrown with greenery, innocuously tucked between Mussolini area buildings, only one hundred metres from the Museum of the Ara Pacis. This space is low-lying, partially excavated, and marked by a large circular structure that rises out of the pit and up to the level of the buildings on the neighbouring streets. Atop the structure are a variety of trees and plants, arranged in levels like the decoration of a cake, and at the very top, it is open to the sky, deep down to the level of the ground within the rounded walls. It is the ancient Mausoleum of Augustus, a funerary tomb long abandoned, built to house the remains of members of that imperial family, now resembling a structured dirt pile. And while a funerary monument certainly doesn't fit the scope of this blog, one of its many reuses over time does.

(1) The Mausoleum site, taken July 17th, 2016.

In 1546, Monsignor Francesco Soderini, a wealthy patriarch from the Florence area, purchased the ruins which were in a state of disuse and converted them into a luxury museum garden, a place for displaying antiques and other monuments to history. The placement was intentional; Soderini was a patron of the antique age and likely appreciated the significance of the site to house his extensive collection of relics. In 1549, in fact, Soderini had the lower levels of the ruins excavated to find what marble remains still existed. Soderini was not looking to do proper excavations and documentation, however, but instead to find interesting items for placement in his gardens.

(2) An engraving of the Soderini gardens, dated 1575, by Etienne du Pérac. 

Note the statues at the door, possibly recycled from the Mausoleum.

(3) 'Pasquino', recovered from the Mausoleum of Augustus.

Soderini's excavation was fruitful, and dozens of items were placed around the garden in niches, set into the florals and bushes, or used as decor for the entrance. One such statue, pictured above, still survives in the Pitti Palace in Florence today. 

(4) Engraving of the gardens, dated 1619, by Alò Giovannovi.

The gardens survived and were kept up until the 18th century when they were destroyed and the structure turned into an arena for bullfights. By that point, the statues and relics had mostly been rehomed into the villas of the wealthy and museums.

While the garden itself is not of ancient Rome, its existence helped to preserve the Mausoleum of Augustus itself, as well as the ancient contents within it. Soderini's excavation was not careful or intended to preserve, but it did unearth a number of items that have survived thanks to their value, and the garden itself has been suggested as an agent of preservation for the remaining walls of the mausoleum. 

Works Cited:

Carnabucci,  Dottoressa Elisabetta. Guided tour, Visit to the Mausoleum of Augustus, Italy, Rome, June 17, 2016.

Riccomini, Anna Maria. "A Garden of Statues and Marbles: The Soderini Collection in the Mausoleum of Augustus." Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 58 (1995): 265-84. Accessed June 19, 2016. doi:10.2307/751517.

Image Sources:
Image 1 taken by the author, July 17th, 2016.

Riccomini, Anna Maria. "A Garden of Statues and Marbles: The Soderini Collection in the Mausoleum of Augustus." Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 58 (1995): 265-84. Accessed June 19, 2016. doi:10.2307/751517. (Images 2, 3 and 4)

The Emperors' Gardens

We have already seen that Pompey the Great built the Porticus Pompeiana as a public garden for everyone to access. But what about the other gardens built by the rich and powerful? Were they exclusively for private use, or open to the public?

It was the practice of emperors to construct grand public spaces and buildings as testaments to their power and wealth and to enhance the empire. Basilicas, temples, public entertainment sites, all of these are projects funded by emperors. Gardens are no different - a number of emperors had public park spaces built under their leadership. Consider the following list:

Vespasian, in 71 CE, constructed the Forum Pacis, which included a strolling garden that was square with three rows of hedges for public enjoyment.

Trajan, in 112 CE, constructed a forum with trees planted in square insets, arranged into avenues like an orchard, but for the sole purpose of public enjoyment.

() Artist's reconstruction of Trajan's forum

Agrippa, in 12 BCE, planted the Horti Agrippae on the Campus Martius.

There were also emperors who built elaborate gardens for their own use, not to be shared with the public and usually on private estates. Some of those are listed below.

Pliny the Younger, 1st century CE, had a large Tuscan villa with a garden of trees, hedges, and a large food producing kitchen garden.

Hadrian, in the early 2nd century CE, had parks and gardens in his countryside estate. His elaborate gardens included a chain of small parks with pools, canals and fountains which incorporated Greek culture and philosophy into the décor and design. As gardens and parks were status symbols in Hellenistic culture, it was common for Romans to try and incorporate that meaning into their own estates.

() Artist's rendering of Hadrian's villa

Nero, after the fire of 64 CE, annexed 80 hectares for a new palace that included an artificial rural estate, grand and expensive.

These are a few examples that answer the question above. Yes, there certainly were plenty of public parks set up by emperors! And yet they also had spaces for themselves, their family, their invited guests and few others. This reinforces the concept that gardens are spaces both public and private, and there are many contexts for them.


Works cited:

Carroll, Maureen. Earthly Paradises: Ancient Gardens in History and Archaeology. London: British Museum Press, 2003. Pages 18, 56, 72, 77.

Image sources:
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/107734616059979380/
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/166422148705354992/

Octavius: Roman Gardens in Philosophy

Gardens, for Romans, were places of leisure to pass the time, as seen in the Porticus Pompeiana, places to produce food, as seen in the horti of Pompeii, and places of splendour and peace, as seen in the peristyle gardens of Pompeii and Herculaneum. But gardens had another purpose, less obvious through simply viewing the space. Gardens were also used as places of learning, of discussion, and were mentioned as such in one particular text.

Octavius is a philosophical debate, apologetic of Christianity, written by Marcus Minucius Felix in roughly the period between 160-250 CE. No copies dated earlier than the 9th century have been discovered; the 9th century manuscript is housed in the Vatican collection.  It features a Christian and a heathen walking through a seaside park in Ostia, debating the truth of their respective religions. The landscape as described as being near the sea, with a landscaped path and many fruit trees arranged in neat rows. 

(1) Cover of the book, digitised and accessed June 15th, 2016.

The inclusion of this setting in a work from the 2nd-3rd century shows that walking in gardens in a conversation was a common activity, enough so to be considered an appropriate setting for the debate. This provides for us an idea of what was taking place in the public gardens - not just leisure, but learning. It certainly fits into our context to go for a walk to have a difficult discussion or to think over a troubling decision, and with the inclusion of this setting by Felix, we can see this as a normalized practice for the Ancient Romans as well.

Works Consulted:

·         Macaouley-Lewis, Elizabeth. “Walking for Transport and Leisure in Rome”, in Rome, Ostia, Pompeii: Movement and Space. Edited by Ray Laurence and David J Newsome. 2011. Oxford University Press, page 275.

      

      Digitised text of Felix, Marcus Minucius. Octavius. 

      https://archive.org/stream/octaviusofminuci00minuiala/octaviusofminuci00minuiala_djvu.txt

    

      Images:
      (1) https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7145289M/The_Octavius_of_Minucius_Felix

Tools and Methods of Ancient Gardening

A few tools have survived from sites like Herculaneum and Pompeii that show what was being used for gardening in the Roman world. Fossilized wood and metal remnants have been reconstructed, and the illustration below shows a few of the specific tools. Wooden spades with iron reinforced blades have been found in Pompeii, along with hoes and sickles. Hatchets and knives have also been found in areas used exclusively for gardening, suggesting they were used in pruning or digging. 

(1) A few of the tools used in Roman gardening.

By the end of the 1st century CE, commercial gardening was taking place, and used specific methods. The Garden of Hercules in Pompeii was a commercial tree and flower garden. By using plaster casts to determine plant type, archeologists are able to determine the types of trees and plants grown in a specific area, and have used this information to identify the commercial nature of the garden. Ancient gardeners would start plants in small clay pots, until the sapling stage, and then either sell them to customers or transfer them to the main garden. The clay would be cracked but not removed for easy planting, and the whole base of the plant would be put into the ground. As the roots grew stronger, the clay would break apart. Presumably, some of these were producing trees for harvest and sale of fresh fruit. One of the most commonly occurring commercial gardens was the vineyard, and some have been recreated in Pompeii, such as the one below, just inside the city walls. 

Replanted vineyard just inside the North gate of Pompeii

Pompeii also had extensive irrigation, allowing gardens to be more exquisite and complex. The introduction of an advanced aqueduct system allowed water to be directed into the gardens and into water retention pools for easy watering. Likely, the gardens of Pompeii were very beautiful due to this technology. The aqueduct and irrigation system changed the structure of gardens to include more canals and water features, both for aesthetic and for storage of water. The images below of a recreation of a Pompeii garden represent what it may have looked like (although without water). 

 Garden in Pompeii at the Casa di Octavius Quartto,

featuring a large waterway.

Works Cited:

·        Jashemski, Wilhemina F. “The Campanian Peristyle Garden.” Ancient Roman Gardens. Edited by Lois Fern. Dombarton Oaks: Washington, DC. 1981. Page 34, 36, 48.
      
      Carroll, Maureen. Earthly Paradises: Ancient Gardens in History and Archaeology. London: British Museum Press, 2003. Pages 93-95.

      http://www.pompeiisites.org/allegati/cartina_pompei_2015_150306120057.pdf

I    Image Sources:

     (1) https://www.marxists.org/archive/childe/1944/tools/fig39.jpg

     All other images taken by the author, June 11th, 2016.